Definition of Communication Essay Example for Free

Definition of Communication Essay Introduction Whenever we interact with other people, intentional or unintentional, we communicate; because of its abstract nature, the concept of communication is difficult to define. If one remembers Communication Theory as a Field (Craig 1999), we gain insight into the scientific fields of communication, on how diverse the fields of study actually are. With such diversity among theorists’ approaches to communication, it is even harder to get a single definition standing, at least within academia. The devil is in the details; however some argue that it is rather impractical to study a subject that isn’t well defined. A First Look At Communication Theory (Griffin 2012) offers a working definition. (Griffin 2012:6) states â€Å"Communication is the relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicit a response†. But does this definition of what communication is suffice in the light of what the different theorists argue it is? This will be the main focus of my paper. I find it most reasonable to approach this question with two communication theories with different fundamental approaches to communication. In order to cover both the interpretive and objective theoretical approach, I will discuss the definition in relation to Constructivism and Semiotics. The Definition The definition consists of five parts: messages, creation of Messages, interpretation of Messages, A Relational Process, and Messages that elicits a response (Griffin 2012:6-9). â€Å"Messages are the very core of communication study.† (Griffin 2012:6). The creation of messages is the implication that messages is usually not randomly generated (constructed, invented, planned, crafted, constituted, selected, or adopted (Griffin 2012:7)). A message does not hold a meaning in and of itself; e.g. there is a differentiation between the words and the meaning. Communication is considered a process, because it functions in a contextual sense. In addition, it is a relational phenomenon because it involves two or more participants and affects their connection. And lastly, if a message fails to initiate any reactions, it would be ironic to call it communication according to Griffin. Constructivism Constructivism approaches communication from the psychological perspective, focusing on cognitive competence in interpersonal communication (Griffin 2012:98). The level of interactional competence is determined by the sophistication of the actor’s social perception skills, and their ability to analyze the social situation (the cognitive complexity of an actor (Griffin 2012:99)). The cognitive complexity is reflected in the communication process through the effectiveness of person-centered messages. â€Å"†¦ the capacity to produce highly person-centered messages has been assessed by having participants generate messages in response to standard situations and then coding these messages within hierarchical schemes for the degree of person centeredness manifested. For example, messages seeking to persuade others have been coded for the extent to which the goals and desires of the target are taken into account.† (Brant R. Burleson, Scott E. Caplan 1998:II,B) In a constructivist view, the communication process is more goal-oriented than relational. Constructing the message in a communicational context is in and of itself an intention to get an anticipated or desired reaction. â€Å"The perception and processing of others intentional efforts to convey some internal statemay be viewed as a special case of social perception† (Brant R. Burleson, Scott E. Caplan 1998:II,C). The addressed uses a received message as input in the process of structuring their response. The effectiveness of a response is directly correlated to the message’s goal related structure, and the cognitive complexity and perception skills of both addresser and addressed. Semiology Semiotics is the study of signs; it involves the production and the analysis of socially attributed meaning to an object. The semiologist Roland Barthes focused his research on signs we use in communication (Griffin 2012:332). In Mythologies (Roland Barthes 2009) we see that Barthes’ perspective on communication is broader than the interpersonal level, focusing more on abstract connotations and mythical signs in a cultural context. He argues that reality is converted into speech through human history; therefore there are no eternal meanings (Roland Barthes 2009:132). Concordantly, the meaning of a sign can shift as time progresses, an original sign could become a denotation for something else through the semiotic process. The creation of meaning of signs is then not only an individual process; it is also a conjunction and ongoing process of communication and human history. Barthes offers a semantic explanation, in his example of wrestling, to the reactions of the audience towards the wrestlers (Roland Barthes 2009:11-12). Arguing that, with French wrestling, different connotations around the mythical sign of â€Å"justice† were at interplay. So in the process of interpretation; Meaning can be implicit. Unconsciously perceived as connotative factor(s) to what is consciously noticed, and then reacted upon. Directly applying the points of discussion Extending the commonalities and differences between the two theoretical views, with Griffin’s definition, some points are very clear. Both view messages as the core instrument in communication and see it as a process. Both agree that if no reaction is elicited in any way, then the function of the message initially failed. The circumstances thereof are different in each point of view. However the aspects of messages in each theoretical view are defined in such a fashion; without a response of any kind, it would be a contradiction to refer to them as such (If we, of course, interpret messages that elicit a response to include apathetic responses). On the points of objection, it seems mostly to be a case of â€Å"weighing the words†, when viewed by either theoretical lens. As an example: on the point of a relational process, constructivists might prefer â€Å"goal-oriented† rather than relational. Or from Barthes’ perspective, adding a concept of creating mea ning as a result of communication to the definition. Conclusion The outlined approaches in this paper of constructivism and semiotics, display clear differences in the assumptions, focus-points and explanations of communication. However their general outlook does not, in any significant way, object to Griffin’s working definition. I think this outcome qualifies the definition as sufficient, as a practical tool when studying communication. The evident boundary of my paper however, is the lack of other major theoretical lenses in the subject. Further work needs to be done in order to conduct a more unified definition. References Barthes, R. (2009). Mythologies. London: Vintage Classics. 3-14 and 131-144 Craig, R.T. (1999). Communication theory as a field. Communication Theory, 9, 119-161. Griffin, E. (2011). A First Look at Communication Theory. 8th edition. New York: McGraw Hill. J. C. McCroskey, J. A. Daly, M. M. Martin (Eds.). (1998). Communication and Personality: Trait Perspectives. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton, pp. 233-286, Website: Presshttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/ic/wrightr/const/bu98b.htm#II.B.%20CC%20and%20%E2%82%ACMessage%20Production%E2%82%AC

Literature Review Tuberculosis Article Health And Social Care Essay

Literature Review Tuberculosis Article Health And Social Care Essay According to the World Health Organization, a third of the worlds population is infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (World Health Organization). New cases were estimated to number 9.4 million with 1.8 million deaths in 2008 (Thomas). Gary Maartens and Robert J. Wilkinson published a review in the December, 2007 issue of The Lancet that outlines the current condition of tuberculosis(TB) in the world today. Specifically, the authors report on the status of research, diagnostic techniques, treatment options and the epidemic of HIV-associated tuberculosis in Africa. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the bacterial causative agent of a disease that has been a leading cause of death for much of earths history and still is for many developing countries. Maarten and Wilkinson noted recent regional changes in the incidence of TB with improvements made in many regions while incidence in sub-Saharan Africa has increased. This increase is correlated with the HIV epidemic in Africa and presents complex challenges in the task of controlling TB. In addition to HIV, multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) strains of tuberculosis account for increasing numbers of new cases and recurrent disease in previously treated patients. The authors state that 4% of patients worldwide have a multidrug-resistant strain. Included in that percentage are patients with XDR strains. One reported study of a tuberculosis outbreak in HIV-infected individuals showed that 24% of those patients had XDR strains and this resulted in a 98% fatality rate (52 of 53 patients) . Genetic analysis of the bacterium indicated that transmission of the TB had been recent and it was noted that two-thirds of the affected patients had been hospitalized in the two years prior. The concern is that they may have acquired the XDR strain of TB while hospitalized, highlighting the need for better treatments and more precaution when treating these patients. Without improvements in rapid diagnosis and treatment, the incidence of drug-resistant strains will continue to rise. Genomic analysis has become an important tool in understanding microorganisms and Mycobacterium tuberculosis has been extensively studied and its genes have been sequenced. Analysis conducted on 875 different strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from 80 countries has resulted in the discovery of six distinct lineages of TB that seem to have adaptations to specific populations of humans. As an example, the east African-Asian strain affects people of Indian origin, regardless of where they currently live. Another strain, W/Beijing, has less specificity, affecting people all over the world, but it also seems to be more virulent. Each of these strains is the result of mutations in the DNA of the bacterium. Different strains of TB have different mechanisms which allow them to modulate or suppress the immune system response. Many of these mechanisms have to do with the molecules that comprise the mycobacterial cell wall such as phenolic glycolipids. Two large studies have identified that membrane-associated proteins, molecular transporters, and ion channels play a vital role in the virulence of TB. These discoveries not only help scientists better understand the pathogenesis of tuberculosis; they also provide new targets for treatment. In addition to the genetics of the bacteria, the genetic makeup of the host is critical. Specific receptors on human macrophages recognize specific molecules of the cell wall of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and trigger cellular signaling cascades that can result in greater host resistance or increased susceptibility to TB. Two of the receptors involved have a role in vitamin D activation and a deficiency of this vitamin has been noted in some tuberculosis cases, leading the authors to speculate about the possibility of vitamin D supplementation for prevention. Mutations in one of these cellular signaling pathways were shown in a series of studies to predispose individuals to severe atypical mycobacterial infections. This line of inquiry, identifying the specific genetic mutations that give rise to virulence factors in the bacteria or greater susceptibility in the host, could lead to huge advancements in the understanding and eventual eradication of TB, but the authors point out that th ese studies would need to be extensive, which equates to expensive. Diagnosis and treatment for tuberculosis hasnt significantly changed in decades. Microscopic analysis and bacterial culturing are the standard protocols used to detect a TB infection, but these techniques have drawbacks, the most obvious being the time and labor involved in culturing. Maarten and Wilkinson state the obvious by expressing a desire for a more sensitive test that is rapid and affordable. A few emerging candidates are discussed, including nucleic-acid amplification tests and enzyme-linked immunospot analysis (ELISpot analysis). Nucleic-acid amplification tests have not proven to be significantly better at identifying TB. They are also expensive and require specialized equipment, making them unsuitable for use in most developing countries with limited resources. The ELISpot analysis, however, has promise in that it shows greater sensitivity and specificity than the tuberculosis skin test (TST), particularly in differentiating between exposure to TB and an active infection . In addition to assessing whether a patient is dealing with a tuberculosis infection, it is critical to know whether the strain of TB is drug-resistant. Current methods of determining drug resistance require 6-8 weeks, but microscopic analysis of liquid culture growth can be done within 10 days and has the advantages of being inexpensive and easily available, even to locations with limited resources. HIV infection further complicates diagnosis of tuberculosis and a determination is frequently made based solely on clinical symptoms and x-rays. This can lead to faster treatment, but could also be a contributing factor in the creation of resistant strains. Current methods of treatment involve a cocktail of medications taken for at least six months. This protocol typically has good results, even in patients with HIV. The treatment strategy utilized internationally is called directly observed treatment short course (DOTS). This method of control has contributed to gains made in prevention, diagnosis, and treatment, but still has many shortcomings. The authors advocate a combined approach and point to very high adherence rates for HIV treatments with a more patient centered approach, which empowers the patient to take care of themselves rather than reporting to a clinic to be observed taking a medication. The medications used to treat TB have changed very little and new medications are desperately needed, especially in light of the increase in drug-resistant strains. A commonly used medication, rifamycin is proving to be less effective in patients with HIV due to the development of resistance or because of some metabolic process reducing the concentration of the medication in their bodies. Fluoroquinolones have been shown to be effective but seem to be prone to rapid development of resistance and toxicity. The authors report on two new antimycobaterial drugs that have novel mechanisms of action and are in the process of testing. The complications of treating patients with HIV and TB are many. Most of the symptoms of TB are due to immune response (immunopathological), but the immune systems of HIV patients are already suppressed. The medications to treat TB can further suppress the immune response leading to an increase in viral load and the possibility of more opportunistic infections. In addition, many of these medications have proven to be hepatotoxic, which HIV patients are even less equipped to handle. Complications can also include paradoxical deterioration whereby the treatment of HIV results in a worsening of TB symptoms. The important point is that more research is required to understand the immune system functionality in concurrent infections of TB and HIV. The treatment of latent infections is aimed at preventing these infections from becoming active, particularly in immunocompromised patients. The most common strategy is a 6-12 month course of isoniazid. Although widely used, this treatment carries the same risks of medication resistance and hepatotoxicity as other TB drugs. Additional information on the physiology of latent infections could lead to better drugs and better strategies for treatment. Vaccination, which is widely available in Europe, but not used in the United States, has shown some efficacy in preventing severe TB infections in children, but the length and strength of protection is in question. Tuberculosis is still transmitted, allowing the continued spread of the bacteria. Novel vaccines are being tested and a few show promise to provide better protection. The authors reiterate the need for large, long term studies. Sub-Saharan Africa is experiencing an epidemic of HIV-associated tuberculosis. The capacity to manage this epidemic is severely hindered by socioeconomic, medical infrastructure, and political issues. Treating with antiretrovirals has reduced the number of cases of tuberculosis, but HIV patients are still much more likely to develop tuberculosis. The best preventative measure seems to be to reduce the incidence of HIV and the best treatment strategy is to identify and treat active tuberculosis. Treating both HIV and tuberculosis concurrently poses special problems. Many of the drugs have potentially negative interactions, either reducing efficacy or increasing toxicity. In addition, there is the possibility of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. This disorder manifests as a worsening of TB symptoms in a patient that was improving, likely due to an improved immune response resulting from treatment of HIV. In essence, successful treatment of HIV results in an escalation of tub erculosis symptoms. Steroids used to treat the TB have some success, but at the risk of increased complications from HIV. There is a fine line in concurrently treating these diseases and much more to understand about it. This article serves both as a reminder of the enormity of the problems associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis and as a call to arms for more research. With a third of the worlds population affected, it is extremely surprising that we dont have a symbol, a color, a celebrity backed telethon with accompanying song, or a three-day walk to raise awareness and money for research. I suppose part of the problem is that the problem is over there and so we in America are less aware. Preventing the spread of the bacteria seems to be the best option for a long term reduction in incidence, and a new vaccine would seem to be the logical next step. In reading the article, it seems the challenges in treating tuberculosis are almost overwhelming. Tuberculosis lives and multiplies in the macrophages of the human immune system, the very cells that would normally play a key role in eradication of a bacterial infection. This uncommon arrangement, in addition to the complexity of the interactions bet ween humans and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is key to understanding the disease in the hope of finding better solutions. If we could find a way to induce the bodys immune systems to attack the bacteria itself without the formation of tubercles or other negative effects, that would be an ideal solution. If that is not possible, we need to find those mechanisms or characteristics that are unique to the bacterium or its pathogenesis and create a drug to act on those. The challenges are many. The authors repeatedly used the term political will and it seems that this may be the key to resolving the problem of tuberculosis. While the article serves the purposes of reminding and rallying, it seems to be written for those already familiar with the disease and is poorly organized. The authors seem to hopscotch about with very little in the way of transition, making it difficult for a novice to assimilate the information. It is a good review of the current direction, but without the foundatio nal information required to understand what it means.

Human Resource Management Critical Review

Human Resource Management Critical Review Human Resource Management is concerned with the way in which associations coordinate their individuals (Redman and Wilkinson 2001: 1). It wrappings a very broad kind of notions, improvement, and procedures for coordinating and accelerating attachments and production in organizations. However, much of this is admonished for engaged in concept but not in practice. Due to the gigantic scale of the human asset management concept, this period paper mostly aspires to converse about this contention with quotation to a key and topical up to designated day facet of HRM, the strategic human asset management. Literature Review More recently, human asset management has consumed its wideness of study after the staple concerns of recruitment, assortment, educating pay and appraisal, etc. in exact, one stream of study, strategic human asset management (SHRM) has emerged as being highly influential in this esteem (Wilkinson A et al., 2001:10). SHRM points that an organizations human asset assets are probably the sole source of sustainable comparable for instance and much of the work in this locality arises from the resource-based concept (RBT) of the firm (Barney, 1991, 1995). The resource-based concept presents conceptual foundation for asserting that HR assets are key to firms comparable and relation advantage. Miller argue that operational linkages between the enterprise design and the standard in the main heading of employees are the key, or in his sayings, the fit of HRM with the strategic impel of the organizations (Wilkinson A et al., 2001:10) and he presents his delineation of SHRM: Those deductions and undertakings which disquiet the management of employees at all degrees in the enterprise and which are administered in the main heading of conceiving and sustaining comparable advantage. (Miller, 1987:352) Theorists address HRM as being intensified, unified and propelled by strategy: A strategic orientation is a vital constituent in human asset management. It presents the structure interior which a ordered approach can be developed to the creation and setting up of HRM values, designs and practices. [] The aim of strategic human asset management is to double-check that the heritage, procedure and structure of the association, and the worth, firm pledge and motivation of its employees, assists absolutely to the accomplishment of enterprise objective. (Armstrong M., 1992:47) The disquiet with design, which emphasizes on integrating standard with organizational design, taking a long-term viewpoint and asset other than cost (see Cheyne A, Lecturer comments, week 1/2003), distinguishes HRM from one-by-one management. It is claimed that one-by-one management is substaintially reactive, whereas HRM, exemplified by design, is proactive. For instance, Guest differentiates customary one-by-one management from HRM by virtue of the way in which the preceding disregarded, but the last cited adopts strategy (1993:213). SHRM takes a proactive way in the main heading of the competitiveness and effectiveness of the association other than of reactive day-to-day oriented one-by-one management. Strategic literatures stress the central asset of a enterprise as the source of comparable for instance, which can be maintained by the following aspects: They should add worth to the association activities They should be uncommon, unique They should be incapable to be refurbished by technology The affray should have adversity in making a replicate them / nonimitable These criteria of HRM appear in the pattern of adeptness, know-how and experience (Storey 1995: 4) The assumption of a close attachment between enterprise design and HRM values is founded on contingency concept, which keeps that HRM values are selected as claimed by the kind of comparable design taken up by businesses. Contingency concept (Miles and Snow, 1984; Porter, 1985; Schuler and Jackson, 1987a) notifies us, HRM designs should be gelled with accurate enterprise comparable designs if they are to boost association performance. The concept of fit facilitates the close linkage between HRM designs and enterprise designs in alignment to help hold and motivate employees. A firm applying HRM practices that increase employee demeanour dependable with its enterprise design is proficient to complete better production (Delery and Doty, 1996). In supplement, the proposal of the fit assists enterprises to coordinate their assets more competently, in alignment that they can decline operational allegations and answer competently to environmental restraints and new possibilities (Bird and Beechler, 1995). Therefore, creative linkage between enterprise designs and HRM designs may well reinforce organizational performance. Competitive design proposes a sequence of methodical and affiliated deductions that give a enterprise a comparable advantage relative to other enterprises (Schuler and Jackson, 1987a; Dowling and Schuler, 1990). The idea of enterprise comparable design arises mostly from Porters (1980, 1985) classifications of generic strategies: cost administration, differentiation, and focus. And Miles and Snow (1984) classified enterprise designs into three types: protector, prospector, and analyzer. Schuler and Jackson (1987a) utilised the time span trivially distinct from that of Porter to classify enterprise comparable designs into three types: cost decline, breakthrough, and worth enhancement. They furthermore identify distinct kinds of employee demeanour and HRM values, which are fitted to each comparable strategy. Firstly, cost-reduction design embraces reinforcing comparable for instance by decreasing the allegations of items or services. This design boosts yield effectiveness and declines charges through utilising new know-how, expanding the dimensions of yield, or re-organizing yield procedure, whereby a enterprise can launch its items or services at a lesser cost in alignment to gain more market shares. Secondly, breakthrough design stress the development of items or services, which are exclusive, nonimitable or distinct from those of the competition. Finally, the aim of worth enhancement design is to complete accomplishment by providing a worth that excels that of other items or services. Honda in Ohio presents a good instance of how comparable advantage can be profited by high-quality items (Schuler and Jackson, 1987a). Critical Analysis However, it is strong to identify the attachment between human asset management and design and it appears to be easier in concept than in practice. Marginson et al. (1998) found out that 80 per century of older managers in HRM claimed that they have general HRM designs but twosome of can explain what the designs are! In effect, both academics and practitioners have found out it hard to appreciate the implication of strategic human asset management in practice. Hendry (1994b) acknowledges that design is the better theme in HRM but furthermore a misread idea and the viewpoint writers on HRM offer on design is often slick and requiring in sophistication (1994b: 2) Perhaps the adversity is aggregated by requiring of case enquiries, which endow us have a insight look into the design in practice. For practitioner part, the stress of SHRM in concept has administered to large interest from older management assembly but proceed incorrect to fit the lower-level managers. We will converse about this in the subsequent part of the article. In minutia, just like Guest (1987) explained in his publication, human asset design may only unproblematic in the flawless position and Price (1997) concludes that: It should take position interior a purpose- assembled up to designated day place, a green locality position utilising care absolutely selected green labour. Such stuff would have no preceding know-how of the business in which the enterprise purposes and therefore would be untarnished by an undesirable evolved subculture. They would not be hide-bound by customary but outmoded ways of doing things. The association desires highly professional management, preferably Japanese and American. Employees should be allocated intrinsically giving work other than uninteresting reasons for which pay is the sole motivation. Workers should have security of paid work and not be absolutely in concern of mislaying their jobs. Discussion Guest acknowledges that these position are strong to complete in present because most associations have pre-existing workers, organisations and equipment that will not be discarded. They express with them with patterns of power and behaviors, which may be resisting to the HR philosophy. In supplement, the formalities of strategic conceiving are gigantic distinct accurate to distinct enterprises and the items emerge to be the completed thing to have one. Some associations develop a comprehensive some 100 years slips item while some use an unwritten guidance. However, neat theoretical improvement with successive sayings of enquiry, alternate and implementation are seldom glimpsed in practice. On the other hand, many older managers articulate the enterprise goals to their employees by the target affirmation, liking this present can lead to a high firm pledge from every one-by-one in the enterprise, since high firm pledge is glimpsed to be crucial for comparable edge. To some span, such standard does work for the target affirmation notifies the employees the essence of what an association is about: why it inhabits, what kind of enterprise it suggests to be, and who its suggested customers are etc. However, it has to accept that many associations develop a target affirma tion only because it is the completed thing to have one. The target affirmation is locked into the companys first-order designs and these are foremost deductions on its long-term aspires and the scope of its undertakings (Purcell 1995: 67) The foremost characteristics of strategic HRM is its integration with enterprise design, the notion being that HR values and practices should support the goals of a enterprise (Redman and Wilkinson, 2002). Storeys study (1992) concludes that such integration is uncommon in British organizations. His task intensified on 40 large utilising associations and committed 350 meetings with managers at all degrees, in which approximately 80% were line and general managers. He settled that: human asset management kind designs had been bolted on to the embedded system (Storey, 1992). The management change was very slow and hesitant process. There emerged to be need of integration between paid work practices, both one-by-one and collective, and broader enterprise strategy. Conclusion In deduction, while it works well in concept surrounding the theme of SHRM, human asset management seems to be inapt in practice. Based on the concern overhead, we have to accept that strategic human asset conceiving, which presents a structure for HR obligations over a time span, has its foundation on sensible conceiving but in present employees managers have a kind of adversities in appreciating and applying the strategy. Some of the adversities individuals face encompass developing new designs, restructuring, changing and holding for new skills. And more adversities reach from heritage and behavioural change and so on. Strategic human asset management stress numbers, quantitative affirmations, mind-set, demeanour and firm pledge while standards harder matching types of HRM (Price 1997: 184), but the implementation is inapt particularly when the responsibilities overtake to the line managers. In present, there are both goal and individual constituents pertaining to line managers and supervisors that lead to some blocks and obstacles to the integration between HRM design and association design and the implementation of strategy. In abstract, it is equitable to state that human asset management concept works well in concept but not in practice. In newest years, the locality of Human Resource Management has moved to address not only micro but furthermore macro relationships. The micro aim, evolving from evolved psychology, emphasized human asset values and their leverage on individuals. This aim was concerned solely with such deductions as job acceptance and employee participation. The macro aim moves the degree of enquiry from the one-by-one to the organization. Diversity Orientation: Configurational ViewDiversity becomes significant organizational goal and diversity management becomes particularly salient because of the natural inclination in the main heading of homogeneity in organizations. Schneiders (1987) Attraction-Selection-Attrition hypothesis (ASA) suggests that associations are inclined to apply, vessel for charter, and hold alike types of people. (Ellis, 1994, 79-110) Thus, diversity orientation serves as such means and should lead to amplified diversity. Diversity comprises expressing distinct backgrounds, heritage, and generations into the equal organization. This kind of perspectives can foster creativity. On the other hand, this kind of perspectives evolves inefficiencies in that diverse assemblies need circulated comprehending, probably making attachment slow and laborious. Thus, we propose that environments and designs that demand breakthrough and creative responses will benefit more from diversity than those environments that need efficiency. (Ellis, 1994, 79-110)One origin that configurations stay crucial for fostering diversity is founded upon concept termed social traps or communal dilemmas . These tricks begin when an try to address adversity more distant exacerbates the adversity through unintentional consequences. For instance, work/family program conceived to provide flexibility to employees could lead to pledge at odds production evaluations for those employees who avail themselves of the program. Likewise, an affirmative undertaking program may conceive communal knack through resentment from white males who appear procedural injustice (Thomas, 1990, 107-117). Diversity orientation mitigates the communal knack adversity by conceiving an natural natural environment where clear, unambiguous pointers are dispatched contemplating diversity. For instance, associations may bypass an affirmative undertaking communal knack by combining it with diversity educating that incorporates designs to absolutely integrate all employees into the organizational culture. Training can conceive an insight of these tricks and provide designs for talking to the underlying issues. Compensation and work conceive affairs may furthermore help bypass communal traps. The unequal circulation of work or buys fosters an one-by-one orientation and assists to individuals engaged competitively other than cooperatively. Thus, work conceive in support of diversity would are inclined in the main heading of symmetry in employee aid and outcomes. Further, Barry and Bateman (1996) argue that dispersed order enhances the organizations skill to conclusion communal tricks that hinder diversity advancement. Organizations with assemblies and work association with dispersed deduction making would are inclined to enhance diversity by circulating order and power all through the organization. Thus, one-by-one values directed in an identity-blind natural natural environment will more anticipated conceive communal traps. diversity orientation, on the other hand, will propel clear, unambiguous pointer that all employees and their aid are valued. Training and development, work conceive, staffing and reimbursement comprise the foremost constituents of diversity orientation. However, these constituents can function individually at cross causes or in concert. firm may have little or no aim on diversity with esteem to educating and development and high degree of diversity aim with esteem to work design. Although many enterprises continue to use these four dimensions of diversity individually, we have argued that configuration of these four practices will work simultaneously to enhance diversity. (Thomas, 1990, 107-117) Thus, multiplicative attachment inhabits in alignment that enterprises that have complementary configured educating and development, work conceive, staffing and reimbursement interventions will have important diversity orientation. This attachment evolves from the minutia that diversity is convoluted incident that yearns unchanging reinforcement. Larkey (1996) distinuishes an flawless diversity climate as increasing pluralism and circulated ideas. Barry and Bateman (1996) argue that diversity communal tricks are nested and enlist locked-in demeanour over degrees of analysis. Thus, values and practices that reside all through the human asset design may have communal knack attributes when analyzed independently. However, diversity orientation leaps the knack by conceiving an organizational security snare to foster and increase heritage diversity. For instance, The UK Instruments has diversity orientation (Thomas, 1990, 107-117). The companys Diversity Network of over 20 diversity designs embraces such characteristics as diversity forums and coalitions. (Thomas, 1990, 107-117) The enterprise furthermore has enterprise and enterprise degree diversity managers. The strategic administration of the enterprise incorporates diversity. Specific diversity designs encompass using, educating and development of kept protected class constituents and employee accolades for accomplishing excellence in boosting diversity. The Diversity Network manifestly serves as the key constituent altering one-by-one diversity programs into diversity orientation. References Armstrong M. (1992) Human Resource Management: Strategy and Action, kogan Page. Armstrong M. (1994) The reality of strategic of HRM, paper presented at the Strategic Direction of Human Resource Management Conference, Nottingham Trent University, 14-15 December. Bach, 2000, unnamed article, quoted in M. Marchington and A.Wilkinson (2002), People Management and Development: Human resource management at work, 2nd ed, Trowbridge, Wiltshire: Cromwell Press. pp 235. Barney, J. (1991) Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage, Journal of Management, 17 (1): 99-120 Barney, J.B. (1995) looking inside for competitive advantage, Academy of Management Executive, 9 (4): 49-61 Bird, A. and Beechler, S. (1995), Links between business and transnational human resource Cheyne A, Lecturer notes, week 1/2003 Comparative Labor Law and Industrial Relations in Industrialized Market Economics, Cunningham and Hyman, 1995 unnamed article, quoted in M. Marchington and A.Wilkinson (2002), People Management and Development: Human resource management at work, 2nd ed, Trowbridge, Wiltshire: Cromwell Press. pp 236. Delery, J.E. and Doty, D.H. (1996), Modes of theorizing in strategic human resource Dowling, P. and Schuler, R. (1990), Human resource management, in Blanpian, R. (Ed.), Guest, D. (1987) Human resource management and industrial relations, Journal of Management Studies, 24 (5): 503-21 Guest, D. (1993) Current perspectives on human resource management in the United Kingdom, in C. Brewster (ed) Current Trent in Human Resource Management in Europ, Kogan Page Hendry, C. (1994b) Developing a human resource strategy: a case study in organizational process, paper presented at the Strategic Direction of Human Resource Management Conference, Nottingham Trent University, 14-15 December. Legge, K. (1995a) Human resource management: a critical analysis, in J. Storey (ed.) Human Resource Management: A Critical Text, Routledge. management strategy in US based Japanese subsidiaries: an empirical investigation, management: tests of universalistic, contingency, and configurational performance Marchington, M. and Wilkinson, A. (2002), People Management and Development: Human resource management at work, 2nd ed, Trowbridge, Wiltshire: Cromwell Press. Marginson, P., Edwards, P., Martin, R., Purcell, J. and Sisson, K. (1988) Beyond the Workplace: Managing Industrial Relations in the Multi-establishment Enterprise, Blackwell. Miles, R.E. and Snow, C.C. (1984), Designing strategic human resource systems, Organization Dynamics, Vol. 13, pp. 36-52. R.R. Thomas, From Affirmative Action To Affirming Diversity, Harvard Business Review, (1990), 107-117.

socialist feminist criticism :: essays research papers fc

Socialist Feminist Criticism: You Dropped the Bomb on Me, Baby   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Feminism and gender studies have been described as having the ability to â€Å"challenge literary and culture theory to confront the difficult task of assimilating the findings of an expanding sphere of inquiry† (Contemporary Literary Criticism 567). This area of study has taken center stage during the last fifty years, not only in our society, but also in literary criticism. Although the terrain Feminism traverses can hardly be narrowed down to one single definition, the exploration of the genre can, at times, be the most intriguing feature of the criticism itself. While feminism has undoubtedly changed the way women and gender roles are considered in society today, it has also had an impact on the way that I, too, read literature, look at American culture, and view the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Walter Ong suggests that â€Å"‘literature’ itself is the product of—or completely wound up and ‘imbricated’ in—the social contexts out of which it grows† (CLC 461). The social contexts that exist in our society have not only affected our societal systems themselves, but also have changed the way we view our class systems, gender roles, and sexual choices. Viewing society from a Marxist perspective can also help us decipher the unspoken rules that govern us. â€Å"Not only do Marxist critics want criticism to be constantly aware of history—both present and past history—in reading and literature, they also demand that the criticism become more overtly political or†¦ ‘politically informed,’ so that it attempts, as Marx said, not simply to interpret but to change the world† (CLC 462). This intent is similar to that of the feminist genre in that both camps are seeking to change the w ay we understand the world and to eventually change the world itself.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Feminism and Marxism are further intertwined if you consider the female sex as a social class of its own. In my analysis of Walt Whitman’s poem, I Hear America Singing, I commented that â€Å"by studying cultures and societies from the Marxist vantage point we are better equipped to understand the affects of social classes on our lives. The theories of Marxism provide the thinking worker with an understanding which is capable of leading him through the many events and complex processes of society, economics, the struggle of classes, and politics.† But, by utilizing these techniques in combination with those of the Feminist perspective, we are equipped with an even greater microscope under which to examine the social contexts that surround and inevitably influence us.

The American Cultural Configuration :: Sociology, Family, Religious Views

In the text, â€Å"The American Cultural Configuration† the authors express the desire of anthropologists to study their own culture despite the difficulty that one faces attempting to subjectively analyze their own society. Holmes and Holmes (2002), use the adage â€Å"not being able to see the forest through the trees† (p. 5) to refer to how hard it is for someone to study something they have largely taken for granted. The Holmes' article focuses predominately on paradoxes within our own culture, many of which we don't notice. In a paradox, two contradicting statements can appear to be true at the same time. This essay looks at two paradoxes commonly found in everyday life: the individual versus the family and religion. When you think about family, what is the first thing that comes to mind? If you only thought about your parents or close relatives then you may have been caught in an â€Å"individual vs. family† paradox. Nearly every culture considers family important, but â€Å"many Americans have never even met all of their cousins† (Holmes & Holmes, 2002, p.19). We say we are family oriented, but not caring to meet all of our extended family seems to contradict that. Individual freedoms, accomplishments, and goals are all American ideals that push the idea of individualism. What's important to note is that family or even the concept of family itself doesn't appear in any of those ideals. Holmes and Holmes (2002), observed that â€Å"The family reunions of yesterday are now rare, and when they occur they are often a source of stress.† (p. 19) That quote solidifies one reason why family interaction today is : it's just too stressful, so we avoid it. Where does marriage fit i nto our culture of individuals? Marriage itself may be less of a family unifying event than a way for two individuals to obtain personal happiness; the climbing divorce rate alone seems to suggest the devaluation of commitment in a relationship. Likewise, the Holmes and Holmes (2002) state â€Å"marriage is in effect a continuation of courtship† (p. 19) In my opinion, I would have to agree with the authors on family and marriage, considering the above-stated facts and trends. If we, as a nation, can place the individual so far above our own relatives, are we not creating a future of selfishness? Religious views are virtually unquantifiable on their own, but the effects of those views are very much measurable.

Literary Analysis 12 Angry Men Essay

Juror #7- The Christ Figure In the 1957 classic film, ’12 Angry Men’, the writer, Reginald Rose, portrays the antagonist, Juror #7, as a Christ figure. The writer’s use of a few conspicuous similarities made making the initial connection simple. However, the writer’s brilliant use of inconspicuous similarities made researching this paper very enjoyable. It amazes me that a writer takes the time to tuck little morsels of meaning just under the surface of his work. Let’s take a deeper look at ’12 Angry Men’. The film tells the story of a jury of twelve men deliberating over the fate of a teenaged boy accused of stabbing his father to death. When the jury retires to its chamber, the jury foreman assigns each juror a number according to where they were seated around the table. The antagonist was sitting in the seventh chair; therefore, he became Juror # 7. This is the first Christ figure connection I made. The number seven is the most often referred to number in the Bible with the exception of the number one. The number seven is used over 700 times in the Bible. In the Book of Revelations, it is used 54 times. In Hebrew it is considered the perfect number and represents completion. It is used so many times in the Bible to represent completion or perfection, that to reference them all for this paper would take up its entirety. In ’12 Angry Men’, the antagonist is the only juror to place a not guilty vote when the jury took its first vote. The antagonist systematically breaks down the reasoning behind every other juror’s guilty vote. One by one, he exposes the underlying fears and prejudices of each jury member. In doing so, he creates reasonable doubt. In essence, he became the boy’s savior. In the Book of John, Chapter 8, the st ory is told of an adulteress who is caught in the very act of adultery. In accordance with the law, the woman was to be stoned to death. When asked his opinion of what the woman’s fate should be, Christ says, â€Å"He who is without sin among you, let him throw a stone at her first.† Then those who heard it, being driven by their consciences, left without casting a stone at the woman. In the same way, the antagonist brings to light in each juror their own sinful nature and human weaknesses. The antagonist’s outward appearance and demeanor also mirrors the way that Christ has been depicted throughout the history of Christianity. In contrast to the other jurors, the antagonist wears white. He is outwardly  calm. He is patient and never loses his temper. The setting of the film is a stuffy jury room with no air conditioning, yet the antagonist maintains an air of lightness and serenity. In contrast, the other jurors sweat, complain of the heat and display flaring tempers. One of the more subtle connections I made was that the antagonist was an architect by trade. I knew from Bible study that Jesus was a carpenter. It was not until I was advised to check the etymology of the word architect that this connection became concrete. The Online Etymology Dictionary says the following: architect (n.) 1550’s from Middle French architecte, from Latin architectus, from Greek arkhitekton â€Å"master builder, director of works†, from arkhi- â€Å"chief† + tekton â€Å"builder, carpenter† It was in the end of the very last scene that our antagonist was given a name. He introduces himself by the name of â€Å"Davis† to another juror as they are leaving the courthouse. Ironically, my maiden name is â€Å"Davis†. I suspected that the writer has a reason for doing this so I looked for the meaning of the surname Davis. â€Å"Davis† is Welsh in origin. It is a patronymic name that means, â€Å"Son of David†. In Hebrew, the name David means â€Å"beloved†. Jesus is referred to as the son of David several times in the Bible. The following are a few scriptures from the Bible where Jesus is referred to as the son of David. â€Å"As Jesus went on from there, two blind men followed him, crying out, â€Å"Have mercy on us, Son of David!† (Matthew 9:27) â€Å"And a Canaanite woman from that region came out and began to cry out, saying, â€Å"Have mercy on me Lord, Son of David; my daughter is cruelly demon-possessed.† (Matthew 15:2 2) â€Å"The crowds going ahead of him, and those who followed, were shouting, â€Å"Hosanna to the Son of David; blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord; Hosanna in the highest!† (Matthew 21:9) The writer’s depiction of Juror #7 as a Christ figure is clear if you look at the many subtleties of the script. If I were to delve deeper, I am sure there are many more to be discovered. Doing this assignment has been an enlightening experience for me. I have developed the inability to take a written work of art at its face value alone. I will forever be turning over the stones of every story, looking for the hidden jewels of meaning.

Individual Assignment Two Essay

The popularity of Southwestern University’s football program under its new coach, Bo Pitterno, surged in each of the 5 years since his arrival at the Stephenville, Texas, college. With a football stadium close to maxing out at 54,000 seats and a vocal coach pushing for a new stadium, SWU president Joel Wisner faced some difficult decisions. After a phenomenal upset victory over its archrival, the University of Texas, at the homecoming game in the fall, Dr. Wisner was not as happy as one would think. Instead of ecstatic alumni, students, and faculty, all Wisner heard were complaints. â€Å"The lines at the concession stands were too long†; â€Å"Parking was harder to find and farther away than in the old days† (that is, before the team won regularly); â€Å"Seats weren’t comfortable†; â€Å"Traffic was backed up halfway to Dallas†; and on and on. â€Å"A college president just can’t win†, muttered Wisner to himself. At his staff meeting the following Monday, Wisner turned to his VP of administration, Leslie Gardner. â€Å"I wish you would take care of these football complaints, Leslie†, he said. â€Å"See what the real problems are and let me know how you’ve resolved them†. Gardner wasn’t surprised at the request. â€Å"I’ve already got a handle on it, Joel†, she replied. â€Å"We’ve been randomly surveying 50 fans per game for the past year to see what’s on their minds. It’s all part of my campus-wide TQM effort. Let me tally things up and I’ll get back to you in a week†. When she returned to her office, Gardner pulled out the file her assistant had compiled (see the following table). â€Å"There’s a lot of information here†, she thought. Questions: 1. Using at least two different quality tools, analyze the data and present your conclusions. 2.  How could the survey have been more useful? 3.  What is the next step? Fan Satisfaction Survey Results (N = 250) Rochester Manufacturing Corporation (RMC) is considering moving some of its production from traditionally numerically control machines to a flexible machining system (FMS). Its numerical control machines have been operating in a high variety, low volume intermittent manner. Machine utilization, as near as it can be determine, is about 10%. The machine tool sales persons and a consulting firm want to put the machines together in a FMS. They believe that a $3,000,000.00 expenditure on machinery and the transfer machines will handle about 30% of RMC’s work. There will, of course, be a transition and start up cost in addition to this. The firm has not yet entered all its parts into a comprehensive group technology system, but believes that the 30% is a good estimate of products suitable for the FMS. This 30% should fit very nicely a â€Å"family†. A reduction, because of higher utilization, should take place in the number of pieces of machinery. The firm should be able to go from 15 to about 4 machines, and personnel should go from 15 to perhaps as low as 3. Similarly, floor space reduction will go from 20,000 square feet to about 6,000. Throughput of order should also improve with this family of parts being processed in 1 to 2 days rather than 7 to 10 days. Inventory reduction is estimated to yield a one-time $750,000 savings and annual labor savings should be in the neighborhood of $300,000.00. Although the projections all look very positive, an analysis of the project’s return on investment showed it to be between 10% and 15% per year. The company has traditionally had an expectation that projects should yield well over 15% and have payback periods of substantially less than 5 years. Questions: 1.  As the production manager for RMC, what would u recommend? And why? 2.  Prepare a case by a conservative plant manager for maintaining the status quo until the returns are more obvious 3.  Prepare the case for an optimistic sales manager that you should move ahead with the FMS now. ACM is an electronics component manufacturer that has been located in Singapore since 1991, supplying original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) with quality components. In the past several years, ACM has experienced increasing pressure from other manufacturers located in other countries. In Singapore, while labor remains quite inexpensive, there has been a relatively steady increase in labor costs. In addition, utility costs – most notably water and energy costs – have led the firm to contemplate moving operations elsewhere in Asia in an attempt to make the firm more competitive. ACM remains profitable, but margins have shrunk, and management is interested in ensuring that the firm remains competitive in the medium term to long term against other component manufacturers. A team of senior management has formed a committee to reach a decision regarding possible relocation. The committee has identified two additional locations as possible candidates for relocation: Hong Kong (People’s Republic of China [PRC]) and Kuching (Malaysia). Hong Kong’s main attractions stem from the fact that since 1997, when its sovereignty was transferred back to the PRC, labor costs have decreased as access to labor has increased. Hong Kong enjoys a large seaport and very good transportation infrastructure, and this is important in moving in raw materials and moving out finished components  to customers. Senior management believes that an increasing number of OEMs will move to the PRC in the next several years, as has been the case in the past decade. This will only increase the attractiveness of locating the manufacturing facility in Hong Kong. Kuching is located in the Malaysian province of Sarawak, on the island of Borneo. It is the fourth-largest city in Malaysia and home to a population of around 650,000. Several points make Kuching attractive to the relocation committee. First, locating here would give access to natural resources and other production inputs. Second, the transportation infrastructure is good, and the city hosts a deep sea port for moving raw materials in and finished good out. That said, the port is not as large or accessible as those of Hong Kong or Singapore, and several committee members have expressed concern about the frequency of ship visits to Kuching. If the port does not receive regular service from container ships, transportation costs to ship components to OEMs will doubtlessly stable and inexpensive in Malaysia. The committee has contracted the government of Singapore to elicit possible incentives to not relocate to another country. Singapore is offering a five-year exemption on taxes for ACM if the plant remains in Singapore. The government will also assist by partially subsidizing labor, water, and energy costs for five years. Committee members realize that the Singapore plant, which has been operating for years, has already been amortized, and opening a new plant would require additional capital costs. That said, opening a new factory would also provide an opportunity to upgrade production equipment to more productive and energy-efficient alternatives. Questions: 1.  What advantages and disadvantages does each potential location offer? 2.  What other relevant factors that are not mentioned in this case study might play a role in this decision? 3.  Why is transportation infrastructure so important in this decision? 4.  This is a long-term, strategic decision; what factors might change in the next 10 to 20 years? How will this influence the decision? 5.  Which alternative would you recommend, under which circumstances?† Henry Coupe, the manager of a metropolitan branch office of the state department of motor vehicles, attempted to perform an analysis of the driver’s license renewal operations. Several steps were to be performed in the process. After examining the license renewal process, he identified the steps and associated times required to perform each step as shown in the following table. State Automobile License Renewals Process Times Step 1. Review renewal application for correctness 2. Process and record payment 3. Check file for violations and restrictions 4. Conduct eye test 5. Photograph applicant 6. Issue temporary license Average Time to Perform (seconds) 15 30 60 40 20 30 Coupe found that each step was assigned to a different person. Each application was a separate process in the sequence shown below. Coupe determined that his office should be prepared to accommodate the maximum demand of processing 120 renewal applicants per hour. He observed that the work was unevenly divided among the clerks, and the clerk who was responsible for checking violations tended to shortcut her task to keep up with the other clerks. Long lines built up during the maximum demand periods. Coupe also found that the Steps 1 to 4 were handled by general clerks who were each paid $12 per hour. Step 5 was performed by a photographer paid $16 per hour. (Branch offices were charged $10 per hour for each camera to perform photography.) Step 6, issuing temporary licenses, was required by state policy to be handled by uniformed motor vehicle officers. Officers were paid $18 per hour, but could be assigned to any job except photography. A review of the jobs indicated that Step 1, reviewing the application for correctness, had to be performed before any other step could be taken. Similarly, Step 6, issuing temporary licenses, could not be performed until all the other steps were completed. Henry Coupe was under severe pressure to increase productivity and reduce costs, but he was also told by the regional director of the Department of Motor Vehicles that he had better accommodate the demand for renewals. Otherwise â€Å"heads would roll.† Questions: 1.  What is the maximum number of applications per hour that can be handled by the present configuration of the process? 2.  How many applications can be processed per hour if a second clerk is added to check for violations? 3.  If the second clerk could be added anywhere (and not necessarily to check for violations, as in (2)), what is the maximum number of application the process can handle? What is the new configuration? 4.  How would you suggest modifying the process in order to accommodate 120 applications per hour? What is the cost per application of this new configuration?